Following independence in 1960, Mali initially followed a socialist path and was aligned ideologically with the communist bloc. Mali's foreign policy orientation became increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 1992, Mali's relations with the West in general and the United States in particular have improved significantly. U.S.-Malian relations are described by the U.S. Department of State as "excellent and expanding," especially given Mali's recent record of democratic stability in the volatile area of West Africa and its avowed support of the war on terrorism. Mali is reported to be one of the largest recipients of U.S. aid in Africa.[1]
Mali is active in regional organizations such as the African Union (AU). Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional regions.[1]
Although Azawad, a region spanning the expansive north of Mali, was proclaimed independent in April 2012 by Tuareg rebels, Mali has not recognised the de facto state.[2] Britain has closed its embassy; ECOWAS has declared an embargo against Mali, aiming to squeeze out Malian oil supplies; closed Mali's assets in the ECOWAS regional bank and has prepared a potential intervention force of 3,000 troops. France has declared it will assist in a potential intervention.[3]
Historically, Mali has used these organizations to leverage the promotion of regional peacekeeping efforts. One of the largest issues facing the country is security threats from extremist groups and consequential political unrest.
One of the most prominent examples of this is Mali's former membership the G5 Sahel with the fellow member states Burkina Faso (formerly), Chad, Mauritania, and Niger (formerly). The Sahel was originally formed on 16 February 2014, with the main objective of encouraging security and development. This partnership is historically significant due to the group's shared colonizer, France. In its first year of existence, the organization formed a legal framework for strategic intervention and a secretariat located in Nouakchott, Mauritania.[4] The framework was titled the Development and Security Strategy (SDS). In 2017, the G5 Sahel Joint Force was created and funded through the Priority Investment Program (PIP), aiming to reduce violence and create more stability in the region. In a December 2018 coordination conference, $2.6 billion was pledged from foreign nations including the United States, European Union, Saudi Arabia, and China. American and French financial support is suspected to be, in part, a result of their consequentially lowered troop commitment in the region. This military collective targets organized crime and religious extremists specifically with cross-border operations. In addition to military-centered approaches, Mali and Niger have implemented Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration, or DDR, programs while Mauritania and Burkina Faso have not. DDR is an approach that removes weapons, breaks up crime organizations, and reintegrates combatants into civilian life or state-sanctioned armed forces. Although more costly and time-intensive, DDR has proven to be more sustainable than other stabilization approaches over time.[5] The G5 Sahel has been weakening in the most recent years, with many forces from the European Union pulling their troops to concentrate their efforts on the ongoing Ukrainian conflict.[6] However, to compensate, the Sahel member states have reported on plans to expand the size of their force from six to fourteen battalions.[7] Biannual reports from the Sahel have revealed that the efforts have become increasingly dire with high humanitarian needs and large terrorist activity with large resource and land occupation.[8] This eventually lead to its withdrawal on 15 May 2022.[9]
As seen with the G5-Sahel, Mali has not been a particularly active or compliant member of these organizations as a result of their ongoing political unrest. Despite some early successful peacekeeping initiatives by ECOWAS and the AU, their most recent joint policies are facing challenges of limited institutional capacity, low enforcement, and inexplicit language surrounding its implementation.[10] ECOWAS was originally founded to promote economic development across its 15 West African member states, but also works to promote political institutions and stability. Recently, it promised to end the unconstitutional takeover of political power in member states,[11] but Mali has since developed new policies to distance themselves from the organization and limit its reach.[12]
The UN has also attempted many peacekeeping missions focusing on political unrest, economic objectives, and women's rights throughout Mali's history. The most notable effort began with the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) in 2013. In 2022, Mali restricted United Nations peacekeeping operations through their security council[13] and, in June 2023, asked for them to be removed. Although this program is being dissolved, some UN presence will remain in Mali. This effort kept about 15,000 soldiers and police personnel in Mali throughout the project's decade, but has recently been threatened by nearby territorial conflicts. It is also rumored that this removal may be the result of some strategic differences.[14] Since the AU's creation in 2002, there have been some difficulties aligning it with the UN. Generally, the AU prioritizes short-term solutions over long-term, which is opposite to the UN. This disagreement has contributed to arguments about jurisdiction and the correct approach to security efforts.[15]
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Mali maintains diplomatic relations with:
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1963.[60]
During the Tuareg rebellion of 2012, the Algerian consulate was seized by at least two people wearing explosives belts. Seven hostages were taken, including the consul. In regards to Azawad's UDI, Algeria's Prime Minister has declared it would never "accept questioning Mali's territorial integrity" Algeria has planned to co-ordinate with MNLA to work towards freeing the hostages.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 August 1963 when M. Gerard Walravens, first Ambassador of Belgium to Mali, resident in Abidjan, presented his letters of credentials to President Modibo Keita.[61]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1965 when first ambassador of Mali to Dahomey (resident in Niamey) Mr. Hangadoumbo Toure presented his credentials.[77]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 January 1963[55]
Mali established its embassy in Canada in 1978, with its first appointed ambassador Zana Ousmane Dao,[172] while Canada's embassy in Mali has been open since 1995.[173] Canada has moved from Mali's sixth-largest donor of bilateral official development assistance in 2000 to third-largest in 2007.[174] The value of Canada's exports of goods to Mali exceeded imports from Mali by Cdn.$22m. between 1990 and 2008.[175]Natural Resources Canada estimated that Canadian mining investment in Mali reached Cdn.$500 million in 2009,[176] and in 2005, 73 mining concessions were held by Canadian firms in Mali.[177]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 January 1990 when first Ambassador of Mali to Cyprus Mr. Sinally Coulibaly presented his credentials[117]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 March 1964 when first Ambassador of the Republic of Mali, Mr. Modibo Diallo, has presented his credentials to Emperor Haile Selassie[67]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 August 1960[16]
Mali has a longstanding relationship with France, its former colonial ruler, but relations have been described as ambivalent rather than close. Mali dropped out of the Franc Zone shortly after independence, not rejoining until 1967. One contentious issue between the two nations is the frequent expulsion of illegal Malian immigrants from France since 1996.[1]
However, France has played a significant part in helping Mali via military support in the Northern Mali conflict, with soldiers of the two nations' armies working together to take back territory from the rebels.[179] This military intervention, named Operation Barkhane, had the main objectives of strengthening Mali's armed forces and counterrorism efforts which began in 2013.[180] It was meant to bring stability to the state's institutions but, ultimately, helped to enable the 2020 military-led coup d'état.[181] In 2022, Mali expelled the last 2,400 troops of the advanced French military services due to increased violence and worsening conditions following the 2021 coup.[182] This marked a shift in relations between the two countries but appears to have not threatened other forms of support, such as financial aid. France has historically lent significant funding to Mali, most notably starting in December 2018 during the G-5 Sahel's Joint Force's Priority Investment Program (PIP) conference. This funding was meant to boost security efforts with the G5 Sahel, raising US$2.6 billion in pledges for the region from international donors.[5] Since the dismantling of the Sahel, it is unclear if and how these funds have been distributed. France also donated US$128 million between 2020–2021 to Mali through the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC).[183]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1971 when Gambia's first Ambassador to Mali, Mr. Samuel Jonathan Okiki Sarr, presented his credentials to the Head of States, Lieut. Traore.[83]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 June 1965 when M. Souraedi Tashi, Indonesia's first Ambassador to Mali, presented his credentials to President Modibo Keita.[76]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 November 1972 when the first Libyan Ambassador to Mali, Muhammad Ahmad Mograhi, presented his credentials to President Mousa Traore.[84]
Since Mauritania negotiated a boundary dispute with Mali in 1963, ties between the two countries have been mostly cordial. Mali and Mauritania have cooperated on several development projects, such as the OMVS and a plan to improve roads between Nouakchott and Bamako. This cooperation somewhat lessened Mali's dependence on Senegal and Ivory Coast. Although relations were warm with other black African states, since 1965 the orientation of Mauritania's foreign policy has been geared towards relations with North African countries.[188]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 2004 when has been accredited non-resident Ambassador of Mali to Namibia Mr. Sinally Coulibaly.[148]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 July 1964 when has been accredited Ambassador of the Netherlands to Mali with residence in Dakar.[68]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1983 when first Mali Ambassador to New Zealand (resident in Peking), Mr. Boubacar Toure presented his credentials to the Governor-General[109]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 January 1987 when Ambassador of Mali Mr.Moktar Kounta El Bakaye presented his credentials to President of Rwanda Juvénal Habyarimana.[112]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1965 when first Ambassador of Sweden to Mali with residence in Abidjan Mr. Karl Henrik Anderson, presented his letters of credentials.[74]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 September 1960[18]
The bilateral agenda is dominated by efforts to increase broad-based growth, improve health and educational facilities, promote the sustainable use of natural resources, reduce the population growth rate, counter the spread of highly infectious diseases, encourage regional stability, build peacekeeping capabilities, institutionalize respect for human rights, and strengthen democratic institutions in offering good governance. Mali currently is a small market for U.S. trade and investment, but there is potential for considerable growth as its economy expands.[193]
The majority of Mali-US relations and support is centered around military efforts in the form of intelligence, equipment, and financial aid valuing over $588 million, which began in 2017.[194] From 2020 to 2021, US$205 million was also donated in aid through OECD-DAC.[195] This pledged support was announced as conditional on Mali's ability to uphold elections on an agreed timeframe. Although this election timeframe has not been upheld, USAID is currently giving to the distinct initiatives of Agriculture and Economic Growth, Education, Health, Humanitarian Assistance, Multi-Sectoral Nutrition, and Peace, Democracy, and Governance (PDG) Programs.[196] The most recent coups, expulsion of foreign troops, and rejection of intergovernmental foreign aid has made these programs less stable, but has not slowed donations or halted the US support.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 October 1987 when has been accredited Ambassador of Mali to Zambia (Resident in Cairo) Mr. Elbekaye Moctar Kounta.[113]
^Yitzhak Oron (1960). Middle East Record Volume 1, 1960 Volume 1. Published for The Israel Oriental Society, The Reuven Shiloah Research Center by George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Limited. p. 313.
^"Diplomatic and Consular List"(PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia. March 2020. p. 4. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^Europe, France outremer Issues 382-392 (in French). 1961. p. 64. HAUTE - VOLTA . M. Ahmed Diallo , délégué permanent du Mali en Haute - Volta , a présenté ses lettres de créance au président Yameogo (18 mars)
^Bogdan Grzeloński (2006). Dyplomacja polska w XX wieku (in Polish). Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie. p. 128.
^Études congolaises Volume 2 (in French). Institut politique congolais. 1962. p. 55. 23 novembre ... - M. Alioune Diakite , ambassadeur du Mali , présente ses lettres de créan- ces au Président Kasa - Vubu.
^Congo (in French). Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques. 1961. p. 624. 23 novembre ... Alioune Diakite , ambassadeur du Mali , présente ses lettres de créance au président Kasa - Vubu .
^Monde colonial illustré Volume 39, Issues 383-392 (in French). Société nouvelle des Editions France Outremer S.A. 1961. p. 73. M. Touré Hangadoumbou, délégué permanent du Mali auprès du Niger, a présenté ses lettres de créance au Président Diori Hamani
^West Africa. West Africa Publishing Company, Limited. 1962. p. 1131. Yaounde: Diplomatic relations between Mali and Cameroon were scaled when Mr. Mamadou Sangare, Mali Ambassador in Lagos, presented his letters of credence to President Ahidjo of Cameroon.
^Europe, France outremer Issues 393-404 (in French). 1962. p. 62. MALI . M. Mamadou Sangare , premier ambassadeur du Mali au Cameroun , avec résidence à Lagos , a présenté ses lettres de créance au president Ahidjo
^Europe, France outremer Issues 393-404 (in French). 1962. p. 146. MALI: République Arabe Unie (R.A.U.), Soudan, Arabie Saoudite: Ambassadeur (résidant au Caire) : M. El Hadj Modibu Kane Diallo
^Europe, France outremer Issues 393-404 (in French). 1962. p. 146. Guinée, Sierra Leone: Ministre résident (residant à Conakry) M. Tiemoko Compah
^Bulletin d'information de la représentation permanente auprès de l'O.N.U. Issues 1-10 (in French). Congo (Brazzaville). Représentation permanente auprès de l'O.N.U. 1962. p. 14. Etablissement de relations diplomatiques entre le Mali et le Congo : Le Président de la République, Monsieur 1'Abbé Fulbert Youlou, a reçu, le 20 Février 1963 en fin de matinée, les lettres de créance de Son Excellence Abdoul Thierno DIALLO ...
^Europe, France outremer Issues 405-416 (in French). 1963. p. 62. M. Abdoul Thierno Diallo, ambassadeur du Mali au Gabon, résidant à Léopoldville, a présenté ses lettres de créance au Président Mba.
^Mauritania Foreign Policy and Government Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments Volume 1. International Business Publications, USA. 2013. p. 49.
^Administration et diplomatie d'Afrique noire et de Madagascar Volume 2 (in French). Europe-Outremer. 1963. p. 332. Mali: Pakistan Ambassadeur ( résidant à Accra ) : M. Nasim HUSAIN .
^"Relations bilatérales: Mali". République Tunisienne Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (in French). Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
^ abAfrica Research Bulletin. Blackwell. 1964. p. 33.
^ abJaarboek van het Departement van Buitenlandse Zaken (in Dutch). Netherlands. Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken. 1964. p. 123.
^ abBulletin de l'Afrique noire - Issues 355-366 (in French). La Documentation africaine. 1965.
^Africa Research Bulletin. Blackwell. 1965. p. 245. ( SG 1 Mali - Albania . M. Gaqo P : Albania's Ambassador to Mali , preser his credentials on February 9th ...
^ abAfrica Research Bulletin. Blackwell. 1965. p. 335.
^ abBulletin de l'Afrique noire - Issues 379-388 (in French). La Documentation africaine. 1965.
^Africa Research Bulletin. Blackwell. 1966. p. 443. ... M. Toure is also Mali's Ambassador to Chad, where he presented his credentials on January 15th.
^Europe, France outremer Issues 465-476 (in French). 1968. p. 75. R.centrafricaine A l'étranger ... Mali : Ambassadeur ( résidant à Brazzaville ) : M. Halidou Touré .
^Europe, France outremer Issues 477-488 (in French). 1969. p. 160. MALI: Nigeria, Ghana, Dahomey, Togo : Ambassadeur (résidant à Lagos) : M. Mohamed Ould Aly
^Bulletin de l'Afrique noire Issues 581-605 (in French). Ediafric. 1970. August Josef TARTER , ambassadeur d'Autriche au Sénégal , en Côte - d'Ivoire , au Dahomey , en Haute - Volta , au Mali , en Mauritanie , au Niger et au Togo , a présenté ses lettres de créance au Mali le 21 février dernier ...
^ abAfrica Research Bulletin. Blackwell. 1971. p. 2159.
^ abARR Arab Report and Record. Economic Features, Limited. 1972. p. 559.
^Monde colonial illustré Volume 57, Issues 597-608 (in French). Société nouvelle des Éditions France outremer S.A. 1979. p. 138. ... ambassadeurs des pays suivants , accrédités au Mali , résident dans un autre pays : ... Autriche , Belgique , Brésil , Cambodge , Cap - Vert ...
^The Europa year book : a world survey. 1979. Vol. 2. Europa Publications Limited. 1979. p. 1381.
^Le Mois en Afrique Issues 170-179 (in French). 1980. p. 139. BAMAKO , 5 septembre . Le général Moussa Traoré , président de la République du Mali a reçu les lettres de créance des ambassadeurs ... de la République d'Irak ... Abdul Karim Mohamed Najim . L'Irak vient d'ouvrir à Bamako sa mission diplomatique .
^The Europa year book 1980 : a world survey Volume 2. Europa Publications Limited. 1980. p. 426.
^Marchés tropicaux et méditerranéens Volume 37 (in French). 1981. p. 2275. ... ouverture d'une ambassade du Mali à Abou Dhabi , a - t - on appris le 18 août ...
^"สาธารณรัฐมาลี (Mali)". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Thailand (in Thai). Retrieved 4 October 2023.
^Philippine Yearbook Volume 17. Republic of the Philippines, National Economic and Development Authority, National Census and Statistics Office. 2002. p. 156. Mali H.E. Amadou N'Diaye Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Embassy of the Republic of Mali ...
^L'Ambassadeur Mamadou Bandiougou Diawara, Welcome, Mali Embassy website."Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 11 September 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Government of Canada, Canada – Mali Relations, web page, Date Modified: 2009-07-06.[1]
^Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. "ODA Total, Net disbursements", OECD.Stat, ODA by Recipient by country, extracted on 30 July 2009 03:34 UTC.[2]
^Industry Canada. "Trade by Product (HS Codes)", Trade Data Online, Trade Type: Trade Balance.[3]
^Government of Canada. Canada – Mali Relations, Modified: 2009-07-06 [4]