Royal Navy during the First World War

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The Royal Navy had three main tasks at the beginning of the war: to bring the British Expeditionary Force to France and ensure its supplies and reinforcements; to establish and maintain a blockade against Germany; and to ensure the security of British world trade.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Royal Navy was at the height of its power. The French Navy had not been a threat for years, Russia had suffered a crushing defeat against the Japanese at Tsushima in 1905, and the United States Navy was insignificant. However, German shipbuilding plans were seen as a challenge to British supremacy and led to an naval arms race. As relations with Germany deteriorated, Britain joined the Entente Cordiale. In the meantime, Admiral John 'Jackie' Fisher carried out a series of radical reforms designed to transform the Royal Navy into a state-of-the-art naval force. These included the introduction of submarines, steam-powered turbines, a switch from coal to oil, improved torpedoes and a revised training system. In addition, pay was increased and corporal punishment was reduced to a minimum.^[1][2]

After the outbreak of war, the Royal Navy immediately began to establish a blockade along the German North Sea coast. This was intended to disrupt Germany's maritime traffic and trade. In the Mediterranean, the Royal Navy suffered its first strategic defeat when the German Mediterranean Division (battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau) managed to escape the British and reach the Dardanelles unscathed. The first major battle took place off Heligoland on August 28 and ended with a victory for the Royal Navy. Further battles followed off Texel and Yarmouth, which the British were also able to win. Nevertheless, the situation developed to the disadvantage of the British. On 22 September, three cruisers were sunk by a German submarine and a month later the battleship Audacious sank due to a naval mine explosion. On 1 November, the British suffered their first major defeat in 100 years in the Battle of Coronel. The British Admiralty responded by sending a fleet under the command of Admiral Doveton Sturdee to pursue the German ships. This led to the Battle of the Falkland Islands on 8 December, in which the Royal Navy destroyed the German ships and regained control of the southern Atlantic. To maintain the last open supply route to Russia, the Royal Navy was ordered to conduct a show of force at the Dardanelles in November.^[3][4]

At the beginning of the year, the Royal Navy suffered another loss with the sinking of the pre-dreadnought, Formidable. Following the German strategy of provoking the Grand Fleet to leave using small-scale attacks, another clash took place off Dogger Bank on 24 January. Although the British were able to sink the cruiser Blücher, the battle ended without a clear winner. Together with the declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare, there were further attempts to capture the straits in the Dardanelles, but with no clear result. The main attack on the Dardanelles took place in March but had to be aborted with the loss of three battleships. Further attacks followed in May, but these resulted in the loss of three more battleships. Further attacks were considered, but due to differences of opinion and the increased danger from German U-boats, all offensive operations were suspended until December. Despite the German U-boat campaign, the year 1915 ended without the Germans gaining a decisive advantage over the Royal Navy.^{[5][6][7][8][9]}

At the outset of the war, the Royal Navy enjoyed a numerical superiority of 3.5:1 in submarines. However, by the middle of the year, the number of German U-boats had increased to 134, while the British side had only 90.^[10][11] Up to the beginning of the Battle of Jutland in June, war operations in the North Sea consisted solely of patrol duty and the laying of own and clearing of enemy sea mines.^[12]

In the early morning of 31 May, Admiral Franz von Hipper was sent north along the Danish coast with five battlecruisers, while the High Seas Fleet, under the command of Admiral Reinhard Scheer, consisting of 24 battleships, followed him 80 kilometres (43 nmi; 50 mi) further south. The two German formations also included eleven small cruisers and 63 destroyers. The British Grand Fleet, which was able to decode the German radio messages, was already at sea and steamed eastwards in two divisions. The southern fleet under Admiral David Beatty consisted of six battlecruisers and four battleships. One hundred and twelve kilometres (60 nmi; 70 mi) further north was the main force of three battlecruisers and 24 battleships under the command of Admiral John Jellicoe. In addition, the two British formations included 34 light cruisers and 80 destroyers. At 15:25, the battlecruiser squadrons of Hipper and Beatty sighted each other. Hipper changed course and steamed south to close the gap to the High Seas Fleet. Beatty also turned round. The two forces fought an hour-long duel on a parallel course, which the Germans won by sinking the battlecruisers Indefatigable and Queen Mary. When Scheer's main fleet came into view, Beatty turned northwards. Both German groups followed. This soon brought them within range of Jellicoe's fleet, which was travelling in a south-easterly direction. As the two main fleets approached each other, Jellicoe turned eastwards to get between the Germans and the Danish coast. The main battle began around 18.00 hours. Hipper's flagship, Lützow, was put out of action and the British Invincible sunk. As the British fleets were crossing the T of the German vanguard Scheer turned to the south-west under the cover of a smoke screen and torpedo attacks from destroyers. The fire continued until dark. The British now had a clear advantage as they were between the German High Seas Fleet and their base. At about 22:00, however, Scheer turned his ships to the southeast and began to pick his way through the British light forces in the rear of Jellicoe's line. In a confusing four-hour night battle, the German ships broke through and escaped until morning. In this action, the Germans lost the heavily damaged Lützow and the battleship Pommern. The British Grand Fleet then returned to its bases.^[13] On 16 August, there was another clash between the Royal Navy and the High Seas Fleet. After a short battle with only minor damage on both sides, the Germans withdrew to Wilhelmshaven. This was the last time that the German fleet made such a long advance northwards. At the same time, the Admiralty decided not to conduct any further naval operations south of 55° 30' North due to the danger of mines and submarines.^[14][15] In late 1916, the German High Command decided to once again attack the British trade routes on the world's oceans with merchant destroyers. Until early 1917, the Royal Navy tried in vain to find and stop these German ships.^[16]

As the High Seas Fleet did not embark on any further major operations, the Royal Navy's task was limited to fighting the German U-boats and laying and clearing mines.^[17] At the end of January, following a lengthy discussion at a naval conference in London, it was decided that all British battleships in the Mediterranean, except for Lord Nelson and Agamemnon, should be called home to provide crews for the destroyers and light cruisers that were to be completed in the year. Between March and October, there were individual skirmishes, which finally ended with the second naval battle near Helgoland; the battle ended in a draw. At the beginning of the year, the German High Command had begun to resume unrestricted submarine warfare. By April, losses had increased to 545,282 tonnes of cargo. The Admiralty estimated that at this level, the war would end in defeat for Great Britain by November. To avert this danger, the convoy system was introduced in the same month. By the end of the year, this had reduced losses to 253,087 tonnes.^[18][19] To be able to take action against the German U-boats in the English Channel, the Royal Navy made several unsuccessful attempts to destroy the heavy coastal batteries on the coast of Flanders in May and June. Despite this failure, the British succeeded in stopping the renewed movements of the German merchant navy off Flanders in the summer.^[20][21][22]

In April, the Royal Navy raided Zeebrugge in another unsuccessful attempt to stop the German U-boats in Flanders. Apart from the raid on Kattegat in April, the Tondern raid in July, and the bombing of Durrës in October, there were no major actions. Most of the fighting took place between individual ships, with the Royal Navy sinking 30 German submarines by October. On 9 and 10 November, the Royal Navy lost the last two ships of the war, the pre-dreadnought Britannia and the minesweeper Ascot.^{[23][24][25][26][27][28][29]}

The victory over Germany in 1918, which was achieved at considerable human cost, presented the naval forces with as many challenges as it solved. Until 1914, the Two Power Standard applied, which set the strength of the Royal Navy at twice that of the next two largest naval forces. However, the war had brought the naval ambitions of the United States and the Empire of Japan to the fore, so that a return to this former two-power standard was no longer possible. The conflict with the German U-boats had created a deep alliance between the British and the US, previously seen as potential rivals for naval supremacy. It became clear that the Royal Navy would not have been able to win the war without the support of the United States.^[30][31] The Royal Navy's losses during the war totalled around 40,000, including 34,600 killed and 5,100 wounded. In addition, there were 1,250 prisoners of war.^[32] In 1914, the Royal Navy consisted of three fleets. The Grand Fleet, the Channel Fleet and the Mediterranean Fleet. Of these, the Grand Fleet was the largest, with 29 battleships (eight of which were King Edward VII class) and four battlecruisers. The Channel Fleet had 14 battleships and the Mediterranean Fleet consisted of three battlecruisers and eight cruisers. In total, the Royal Navy had 622 ships at the beginning of the war. By November 1918, the number had risen to over 1,354, with losses totalling 254 ships.^[33]

The senior authority in charge of the Royal Navy was the Board of Admiralty. During the war, the Board consisted of nine members. The First Lord of the Admiralty was the senior government representative for all naval matters and was responsible for the direction and control of the Admiralty. The First Sea Lord was responsible for the conduct of the war and the distribution of the fleet. The Second Sea Lord was responsible for the recruitment and training of seamen, Royal Marines, orderlies, nurses and doctors, discipline and the appointment of all officers except those reserved to the First Lord. The Third Sea Lord's remit included planning and design for the fleet, including ships and their machinery, armour, naval guns and mounts, aircraft and airships and dock facilities, as well as modifications and additions to ships that affected design or combat power. This included the preparation of cost estimates for all new construction due in a year under current and future programmes, the supervision of the Director of Naval Construction, the Engineer-in-Chief, the Naval Ordnance Department, the Directorate of Naval Equipment, the Air Department and the Admiralty Compass Observatory. The Fourth Sea Lord dealt with all matters relating to pay, coaling, rations and stores of all kinds, as well as matters relating to uniforms, decorations, detention barracks, deserters, collisions and salvage. The Civil Lord was concerned with construction projects and buildings, including land purchases and leases, while the Additional Civil Lord (a post created in 1912) held the position of general manager, overseeing contracts for the purchase and procurement of materials, shipyard machinery and supplies of all kinds. His duties also included the general organisation of the shipyards, including the recruitment of labour, and all commercial matters relating to the construction and repair of ships. The Parliamentary Permanent Secretary's main responsibilities covered finance, estimates and all proposals for new and unusual expenditure. The Permanent Secretary was responsible for general administration.^[34]

In 1914, the Royal Navy had 139,045 men, including some Royal Marines and the Coastguard, bringing the total to 146,047. At the end of the war in November 1918, 407,316 men and women were serving in the Royal Navy. Until the introduction of conscription in 1916, the Royal Navy consisted of volunteers. The reasons for joining the Navy were sometimes practical, sometimes romantic. One important factor that remained a major incentive until the 1930s was poverty and hunger.^[35]

Prior to the First World War, only those whose parents could afford the high fees for training naval cadets on HMS Britannia, the officer training ship, or at the Royal Navy colleges at Dartmouth and Osborne, founded in 1905, could join the Royal Navy. Tuition at Osborne and Dartmouth was on a par with many of the best public schools, but unlike the public schools, the naval schools did not offer scholarships. Cadets were accepted into the navy at the age of twelve or thirteen after a physical examination, an interview and a written test. The health test consisted of walking barefoot across a wet floor (to detect any flat feet) and looking at different coloured pieces of glass to detect colour blindness. Before the interview, applicants had to write an essay on a topic set by the examination board. Due to the high tuition fees and the individual interview, almost all officers during the war came from the upper middle class and rural gentry. The training lasted a total of four years and was extremely tough. The instructors emphasised physical training, discipline and practical seamanship. After completing his training on land, a six-month cruise on a training ship followed, after which the cadet transferred to a regular warship as an ensign. He then spent 28 months there and, after convincing his superiors of his abilities, was appointed a temporary sub-lieutenant. If he passed further examinations in the fields of gunnery, torpedoes and technology at a later date, he was promoted to full sub-lieutenant. After serving at sea for one to three years, officers could volunteer for selection as specialists in navigation, armoury or engineering. Those who were selected first completed a course of study at the Royal Naval College in Greenwich, where they reviewed and expanded their knowledge in the scientific fields relevant to them. They then attended a course at the training centres in Portsmouth or Devonport. After passing the qualification course, they were awarded the rank of Lieutenant (N), (G), (T) or (E). In addition to this standard procedure, there were three other methods by which the Navy recruited and trained its officers. The first, known as the "special entry" system, was introduced in 1913. Cadets were accepted from the public schools between the ages of 17 and 18 and were commissioned as lieutenants after undergoing modified training. This system was therefore known as 'direct entry' and was increasingly applied to the Royal Marines, whose officers were originally to undergo training at Osborne and Dartmouth. Eventually the Navy obtained some of its officers through the promotion of men from the enlisted ranks; however, in 1914 this only applied to the Executive and Engineer Divisions.^[36][37]

Young men joined the navy between the ages of 15 and 16 to undergo training as a seaman. They had to be of very good character and had to have the written consent of their parents or guardian on the form provided by the recruiting officer. Men who had been in prisons or reformatories were not accepted. Exceptions were made for men who had attended an industrial school, provided they were of very good character and could produce a special authorisation from the Captain of Inspection of the Boys' Training Ships. New recruits received their initial training on board one of the training ships in Portsmouth Devonport or Portland. Here they learnt how to swim, clean the ship, wear and care for their uniforms and acquire basic seamanship skills. As at the naval schools, the training was strict and demanding, sometimes even brutal. Training continued in all weathers. Rations were poor, punishments severe and lost wages were common^[38] Applicants for the job of machinist had to be between 21 and 28 years old and competent professionals in one of the following trades: Machinist or Turner, Coppersmith and Boilermaker. Occasionally, some modellers and foundrymen were also accepted. Applicants were tested in the following areas before being accepted: Reading and writing, knowing the four basic arithmetic operations, being generally familiar with the names and uses of the various parts of the ship's propulsion system, understanding the use and operation of the steam and water gauges and other boiler fittings, knowing how to determine the density and height of the water in the boilers, understanding the operation of the machinery and knowing what to do in the event of water entering the cylinders. They also had to be familiar with what to do in the event of an accident in the machine room. Candidates for the profession of electrician also had to be between 21 and 28 years old, have worked in a skilled trade, have a good command of fractions and have at least five years' professional experience Pay and promotion Lieutenants were automatically promoted to the rank of first lieutenant if they had spent eight years in the lower rank. Promotion to commander and captain was by selection. The next step, promotion to flag officer, was by seniority, with any vacancy being automatically filled by the captain at the top of that rank. Promotion to Admiral of the Fleet was finally made by the monarch.^[39]

During the war the Royal Navy saw also the rise of the Fleet Air Arm. The Fleet Air Arm traces its origins to the establishment of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) in 1912. The establishment of the RNAS marked the formal inception of naval aviation within the British military. Prior to the establishment of the RNAS, the Royal Navy had commenced investigations into the potential of aviation. The inaugural recorded flight from a British warship occurred in January 1912, when Lieutenant Charles Samson flew a Short S.27 biplane from a provisional platform on the battleship HMS Africa. This was subsequently repeated aboard HMS Hibernia.^[42]

On 1 July 1914, the Royal Navy assumed control of the aerial arm of the military, thereby formally establishing the RNAS. In its inaugural period, the RNAS was tasked with overseeing all aspects of naval aviation, encompassing shipborne aircraft, airships, and the establishment of shore-based air stations. Along with the Fleet Air Arm the concept of the aircraft carrier were developed. The RNAS began experimenting with launching aircraft from ships, leading to the development of the first aircraft carriers. HMS Hermes was among the earliest examples, designed to operate seaplanes and later conventional aircraft. These ships allowed the RNAS to project air power far beyond the range of land-based aircraft.^[43]

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